It was originally the food of oppression, the food of slavery.

A diet of invention and necessity that made do with whatever was on hand in order to survive.

Taking the leftovers, the scraps and anything the white slave owners didn’t want and turning them into tasty, fortifying meals.

That’s what soul food was for hundreds of years as it was developed in America by enslaved Africans across the South.

But over time, and with freedom, it grew into a beloved cuisine in its own right that became an important cultural heritage of blacks in the United States — something no longer associated with sorrow but with family, comfort and fond memories.

Food such as Southern-fried chicken, catfish, skillet cornbread, ham hocks and mustard greens, black-eyed peas and sweet potato pie.

Generations of black Americans were raised on these hearty dishes, which have their roots in Africa and were flexible enough to incorporate the regional flavors and tastes of the New World.

“I would say soul food is important,” says Muriel Cook, a Lawrence woman and caterer known for her barbecue and soul-food specialties. “It’s one of those things that I would love to see passed on (to younger people). Whenever a group of African-Americans gets together and there’s soul food, they can identify with it.

“Along with good food, there’s good conversation and laughter, reminiscing about the past.”

Odessa Shorter is among the Lawrence residents who occasionally indulge in cooking soul food. Shorter cooked fried chicken, corn bread, sweet potatoes, and ham hocks and mustard greens on Friday.

Chico Herbison, a longtime instructor in Kansas University’s department of African and African-American studies, says soul food is a metaphor for the slave experience — to take what little you are given and create with that.

“When you look at the origin of soul food, obviously these were items that were discarded and slave masters didn’t need or want, and slaves crafted these items into fabulous dishes,” he says.

Developed into delicacy

Though Lawrence isn’t a hotbed of soul food, there are many residents who grew up eating it, still appreciate it and even prepare favorite dishes for themselves.

Like Odessa Shorter, owner of Odessa’s Cafe, 409 E. 12th St.

Though her restaurant doesn’t specialize in soul food — its fare is better described as homestyle cooking — Shorter is well versed in the kinds of foods that many black Americans (at least those of older generations) grew up eating.

“We were raised on it, and some of those things we still eat. I love turnip and mustard greens mixed, boiled with ham hocks. I make a wonderful sweet potato pie. I make the best fried chicken in the world,” Shorter says.

Her parents, Melvin and Rose Shorter, both grew up in Mississippi. They brought soul-food cooking with them to Kansas, where they raised three daughters and one son.

Shorter’s father, who died in October 2003, used to make dishes such as tomato cobbler and pork neckbone spaghetti.

“I think soul food started out of necessity, the need to survive. So you used what you had and what was left over, and you made do with that. In later years, people began to enjoy it. Now it’s almost a delicacy,” she says.

One classic soul-food dish Shorter rarely makes is chitlins, also known as chitterlings.

“They’re (hog) entrails. You boil them, and some people fry them. It’s nothing that we cook all the time. You have to clean them, it takes a lot of effort,” she says.

“They’re not the easiest thing to have in the house. They’re something you have at holiday times.”

An occasional treat

Soul food has more of a foothold in Lawrence than many people would imagine.

Odessa Shorter, left, spoons up a take-home box of food from among fried chicken, cornbread, sweet potatoes, ham hocks and mustard greens she prepared Friday at her restaurant, Odessa's Cafe, 409 W. 12th St. Shorter's mother, Rose Shorter, right, grew up with the soul food staples in Mississippi and enjoys eating them when she can.

Cook and her husband, Harold, are frequently asked to prepare soul-food dishes when they are hired to cater events in town.

The couple has operated Cook’s Bar-B-Que since 1987.

Among the dishes her customers request are red beans and rice with ham hocks (often called Hoppin’ John), barbecued beef brisket and fried green tomatoes.

Muriel Cook grew up in Camilla, Ga., where she lived with her grandmother, Elizabeth West-Slambo as a child.

That’s where she came to know dishes such as greens (mustard, collard and turnip), black-eyed peas and sweet potato pie.

She still likes soul food but only prepares it for herself once in a while. It’s traditionally high in fat, sodium and cholesterol.

“I don’t cook it the same way any more because of health concerns, but I do enjoy it. I might substitute smoked turkey for ham hocks, so you’re not getting all the calories,” she says.

Another fan of soul food is Arlene Wilson, an 85-year-old who moved to Lawrence from Topeka in 1993 to live with her sister, LaMerle McCoy.

For Wilson, soul food brings to mind dishes such as collard greens boiled with ham hocks, cornbread, black-eyed peas, pork chops with homemade Spanish rice, fried catfish and sweet potato pie.

Clips of audio interview with Lawrence resident Arlene Wilson, who cooks soul food: How to cook ham hocks and greens How to cook sweet potato pie and cherry pie How to prepare chitterlings

In other words, all the foods she loves — but isn’t supposed to indulge in too often.

“These days I can’t eat like I used to. The doctor says I have to lose weight,” says Wilson.

She prepares her meals by following a decades-old cookbook given to her by her mother.

Every now and then, she does allow herself the pleasure of making some soul food.

“It’s very rich. If you’re watching your diet, you don’t mess with that too much,” Wilson says.

Hearty Black-Eyed Peas

1 (16-ounce) package dried black-eyed peas

4 cups water

1 medium onion, chopped

1/2 teaspoon pepper

3/4 teaspoon salt

1 (1-pound) ham steak, cut into 1/2-inch cubes, or 1 ham hock

4 whole jalapeño peppers (optional)

Bring first 6 ingredients and, if desired, jalapeño peppers, to a boil in a Dutch oven.

Cover, reduce heat, and simmer 1 hour, or until peas are tender.

Yield: 8 servings.

Source: Southern Living 2000 Annual Recipes

Skillet Cornbread

2 teaspoons bacon drippings

1 large egg

2 cups buttermilk

1 3/4 cups white cornmeal

1 teaspoon baking powder

1 teaspoon baking soda

1 teaspoon salt

Coat bottom and sides of a 10-inch cast-iron skillet with bacon drippings. Heat in a 450-degree oven.

Stir together egg and buttermilk. Add cornmeal, stirring well.

Stir in baking powder, soda and salt. Pour batter into hot skillet.

Baker at 450 degrees for 15 minutes or until lightly browned.

Yield: 6 servings.

Source: Southern Living 2000 Annual Recipes.

Cheese Grits

4 cups water

1 teaspoon salt

1 cup uncooked grits (quick-cooking grits may be used; follow package directions)

1 1/2 cups shredded sharp cheddar cheese

1/2 cup butter, softened

4 eggs, well beaten

1 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce

1/2 teaspoon salt

Ground black pepper to taste

In a medium saucepan, bring water and salt to boiling. Slowly add grits, stirring constantly. Reduce heat. Cook over low heat for 20 to 30 minutes, stirring occasionally. Remove from heat. White hot, stir in cheese and butter. Stir in eggs. Stir in Worcestershire sauce, salt and pepper. Bake in a 325-degree oven for 1 hour.

Serves 6 to 8.

Note: May be prepared a day ahead, stored in refrigerator and baked just prior to serving.

Source: Taste of Louisiana (a special advertising section).

Chitterlings

2 cups distilled white vinegar

1 pound salt

10 pounds chitterlings (hog entrails)

2 hog maws (pig jowls)

2 cups coarsely chopped onions

2 fresh red hot chilies, each about 3 inches long, stemmed and coarsely chopped

1 1/2 cups coarsely chopped celery

1 teaspoon freshly ground black pepper

1 green pepper, cut in half lengthwise, stemmed, seeded and coarsely chopped

3 cups water

Fill a large basin with cold water and stir in the vinegar and salt. Drop in the chitterlings and hog maws, and soak undisturbed for 30 minutes. Drain off the water, peel off and discard the fat from the chitterlings and hog maws, and rise the meats under cold running water. Soak the chitterlings and hog maws in fresh cold water for 1 to 2 hours longer, changing the water several times. Rinse the meats again under cold running water and place them in an 8- to 10-quart casserole. Add the onions, chilies, celery, black pepper, green pepper and 3 cups of water, and bring to a boil over high heat. Cover the casserole tightly, reduce the heat to low, and simmer for about 3 hours, or until almost all of the liquid has evaporated and the chitterlings and hog maws are tender. Serve at once, accompanied by potato salad, boiled greens and cornbread and by a cruet of vinegar.

If you prefer the chitterlings fried, prepare and boil them as described above. Pat them thoroughly dry with paper towels and place them in an ungreased heavy 10- to 12-inch skillet, preferably one with a nonstick surface. Fry uncovered over moderately high heat, turning them frequently with tongs or wooden spoon until they are golden brown.

Serves 8 to 10.

Source: “American Cooking: Southern Style,” Time-Life Books, New York, 1971.

Ham Hocks and Black-eyed Peas

2 one-pound smoked ham hocks, or substitute a meaty ham bone or pieces of slab bacon with the rind on

2 cups (1 pound) dried black-eyed peas

1 cup coarsely chopped onions

2 medium-sized celery stalks, trimmed of all leaves and coarsely chopped

1 fresh hot red chili, about 3 inches long, washed, stemmed, seeded if desired, and coarsely chopped

Freshly ground black pepper

Place the ham hocks in a heavy 4- to 6-quart pot and add enough water to cover the meat by at least 1 inch. Bring to a boil over high heat, reduce the heat to low and simmer partially covered for 2 hours, or until the ham hocks are tender and show no resistance when pierced deeply with the point of a small skewer or sharp knife.

In a sieve or colander, wash the black-eyed peas under cold running water until the draining water is clear. Add the peas, onions, celery, chili and a few grindings of black pepper to the pot, mix well and bring to a boil over high heat. Reduce the heat to low and simmer partially covered for 1 to 1 1/2 hours, or until the peas are tender. Check the pot from time to time and add more boiling water if necessary. When the peas are fully cooked, they should have absorbed almost all of the pan liquid.

Taste for seasoning and serve at once from a heated platter or bowl.

Serves 6 to 8.

Source: “American Cooking: Southern Style.”

Sweet Potato Pie

4 medium-sized sweet potatoes, peeled and quartered

4 tablespoons butter, softened

3/4 cup dark-brown sugar

3 eggs, lightly beaten

1/3 cup light corn syrup

1/3 cup milk

2 teaspoons finely grated fresh lemon peel

1 teaspoon vanilla extract

1/4 teaspoon ground nutmeg, preferably freshly grated

1/2 teaspoon salt

A 9-inch short crust pastry pie shell, fully baked and cooked

Preheat oven to 425 degrees.

Drop the quartered sweet potatoes into enough boiling water to immerse them completely and boil briskly, uncovered, until they are tender and show no resistance when they are pierced with the point of a small skewer or knife. Drain off the water, return the pan to low heat and slide it back and forth for a minute or so to dry the potatoes completely.

Rub the sweet potatoes through a fine sieve with the back of a spoon or puree them through a food mill. Set the pureed potatoes aside to cool to room temperature.

In a deep bowl, cream the butter and brown sugar together by beating and mashing them against the sides of the bowl with the back of a wooden spoon until they are light and fluffy. Beat in the cooled pureed sweet potatoes and, when they are completely incorporated, add the eggs one at a time, beating well after each addition. Add the light corn syrup, milk, grated lemon peel, vanilla, grated nutmeg and salt and continue to beat until the filling is smooth.

Pour the sweet-potato filling into the fully backed pie shell, spreading it evenly with a rubber spatula. Bake in the middle of the oven for 10 minutes. Then reduce the oven temperature to 325 degrees and bake the pie for 35 minutes longer, or until a knife inserted in the center comes out clean.

Serve the sweet-potato pie warm or at room temperature.

Makes on 9-inch pie.

Source: “American Cooking: Southern Style.”

Candied Sweet Potatoes

1 cup sugar

1/4 cup strained fresh orange juice

1/2 teaspoon ground cinnamon

1/2 teaspoon ground nutmeg

4 large sweet potatoes (about 3 pounds), peeled, cut in half lengthwise, then cut into 1/2-inch thick lengths

1 lemon, thinly sliced

8 tablespoons (1 quarter-pound stick) unsalted butter, cut into bits

Preheat the oven to 350 degrees.

In a small mixing bowl, combine the sugar, orange juice, cinnamon and nutmeg. Arrange the sweet potatoes in layers in a baking dish about 15 inches long, 10 inches wide and 2 inches high, moistening each layer with the sugar mixture and a scattering of lemon slices and butter bits. Top with the remaining butter bits and bake uncovered in the center of the oven for 1 1/4 hours, basting the potatoes with the liquid in the dish halfway through the cooking time.

When potatoes can be easily pierced with the tip of a knife, serve at once, directly from the dish or on a heated platter.

Serves 6 to 8.

Source: “American Cooking: Southern Style.”

Hopping John

2 cups (1 pound) dried black-eyed peas

6 cups cold water

1 pound salt pork (rind removed), cut into strips about 2 inches long and 1/2 inch wide

1 cup finely chopped onions

2 1/2 cups uncooked long-grain white rice, not the converted variety

Place the black-eyed peas in a sieve or colander and run cold water over them until the draining water is clear. Transfer the peas to a 3- or 4-quart casserole, add 6 cups of cold water, and bring to a boil over high heat. Then lower the heat and simmer, partially covered, for 30 minutes.

Meanwhile, drop the salt pork strips into a pot of boiling water and bring the water back to a boil. Immediately drain the strips, pat them dry with paper towels, then place them in a 10- to 12-inch skillet. Fry uncovered over moderately high heat for 10 to 12 minutes, turning the strips frequently with a large spoon and adjusting the heat if necessary to prevent the pork from burning. When the strips are brown and crisp and have rendered all their fat, transfer them with tongs to paper towels to drain, and set aside.

Add the chopped onions to the fat remaining in the skillet and cook over moderate heat for 3 to 5 minutes, stirring frequently, until the onions are soft but not yet browned. Remove from the heat and set aside.

In a fine sieve, wash the rice under cold running water until the draining water is clear.

After the peas have cooked their allotted time, stir in the salt pork, onions and the rice and bring back to a boil. Cover the casserole tightly, reduce the heat to low and simmer 20 to 30 minutes, or until the peas are tender and the rice is dry and fluffy. Taste for seasoning and serve at once.

Serves 8 to 10.

Source: “American Cooking: Southern Style.”

Fried Apple Pies

One 5-ounce package dried apples (or any other dried fruit)

2 cups water

1/2 cup sugar

2 tablespoons butter

1/2 teaspoon cinnamon

One 15-ounce package refrigerated pie crust (found in dairy section)

1 1/2 cups vegetable oil, or more as needed

Cook the apples with the water in a covered pot over medium-low heat for about 1 hour, or until all liquid has been absorbed. Stir occasionally. Add the sugar, butter and cinnamon, mixing well; set aside to cool. Unfold the pie crust and break into 8 equal pieces like pie slices. Place 1 heaping tablespoon of fruit on each round of dough, leaving a 1/2-inch border all around. Dip your finger in water and moisten the edges of the crust, then place a second round on top of the filling and press the edges to seal. Dip the tines of a dinner fork in flour and crimp the edges to ensure a proper seal.

Pour the oil into a cast-iron skillet to a depth of a little less than 1/2 inch. (This would be 1 1/2 cups oil in a 10-inch skillet.) Heat over medium-high heat. When the oil is hot, place 3 to 4 pies in the skillet and cook for about 2 minutes on each side, or until golden brown. Drain on paper towels. Repeat until all the pies are cooked, or wrap and freeze some of the uncooked pies for another day.

Sprinkle the pies with granulated sugar while they’re hot.

Yield: 8 pies.

Source: “The Lady and Sons, Too! A Whole New Batch of Recipes from Savannah,” by Paula H. Deen (as seen on Food Network).

Simple Southern Fried Chicken

1 frying chicken, skin removed if lower-fat version is desired

3 teaspoons Lawry’s Season Salt

2 garlic cloves, finely chopped

1 cup all-purpose flour

1 cup vegetable oil

Black pepper to taste

Season chicken with all seasonings. Roll chicken in flour until covered. Shake off excess flour. Sprinkle additional seasoning. Simply fry chicken in frying pan until golden brown. For crispier chicken, fry a little longer.

Note: Start out with the oil very hot, then reduce the heat later. This seals in the moisture and flavor, then cooks it.

Source: “Willie Crawford’s Soul Food Cookbook,” submitted by Muriel Cook, Lawrence. (Book is available at www.chitterlings.com.)