How do you know when pears are ripe?

Pears should not be allowed to ripen on the tree but rather picked while still firm and then ripened after harvest. Tree ripened fruit are of poor quality due to the development of grit cells and the browning and softening of the inner flesh. Commercial growers determine the best time to harvest pears by measuring the decrease in fruit firmness as the fruit matures. This varies with growing conditions and variety.

If you have a pear tree at home, here are some tips to determine the right time to pick pears:

• A change in the fruit ground color from a dark green to light green or yellowish green. The ground color is the “background” color of the fruit.
• Fruit should part easily from the branch when it is lifted up and twisted.
• Corking over of lenticels. Lenticels are the “breathing pores” of the fruit. They start out as a white to greenish white color and turn brown due to corking as the fruit nears maturity.
• Development of characteristic pear aroma and taste.

Pears ripen in 1 to 3 weeks after harvest if held at 60 to 65 degrees. They can then be canned or preserved. If you wish to store some for ripening later, fresh-picked fruit should be placed in cold storage at 29 to 31 degrees and 90 percent humidity. Ripen small amounts as needed by moving them to a warmer location and holding them at 60 to 65 degrees. Storing at too high a temperature (75 degrees and higher) will result in the fruit breaking down without ripening.

I understand that there are some foods that are related to the ragweed family. What are they?

According to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, people who suffer from allergies due to ragweed also may want to avoid foods that are relatives to ragweed.

Chamomile is a common relative of ragweed. Chamomile leaves are often used for tea to soothe nerves or ease an upset stomach. Many people who are allergic to ragweed may find that drinking chamomile tea or applying lotion that contains chamomile might bother their allergies. Other foods known to cause mouth or throat swelling in people who are allergic to ragweed include melons, bananas, zucchini, cucumber and sunflower seeds.

Daisies, dahlias and chrysanthemums also are related to ragweed.

You might want to avoid bringing these flowers into the house.

How do you can pumpkin butter?

It is not recommended to can pumpkin butter at home. This is because of the thickness of the puree, low acidity and high water activity. The combination of these factors can lead to the possible growth of clostridium botulinum when stored at optimum temperatures for growth.

Even if pressure canned, there is no guarantee the organism will be destroyed.

However, there are recommendations to can “cubed” pumpkin. This will allow the heat from the pressure canning process to penetrate the jar more efficiently and produce a safe product. Here are instructions for canning cubed pumpkin:

An average of 16 pounds is needed per canner load of 7 quarts; an average of 10 pounds is needed per canner load of 9 pints — an average of 2.5 pounds per quart.

Pumpkins and squash should have a hard rind and stringless, mature pulp of ideal quality for cooking fresh. Small size pumpkins (sugar or pie varieties) make better products.

Wash, remove seeds, cut into 1 inch-wide slices and peel. Cut flesh into 1-inch cubes. Boil 2 minutes in water. Caution: Do not mash or puree. Fill jars with cubes and cooking liquid, leaving 1 inch head space. Remove air bubbles. Wipe jar rims. Adjust lids and process in a dial gauge pressure canner at 11 pounds of pressure or in a weighted gauge pressure canner at 10 pounds pressure for 55 minutes (for pints) or 90 minutes (for quarts). An easy way to preserve pumpkin is freezing. Select mature pumpkins with full orange color. Wash, cut into cooking-size section and remove seeds. Cook until soft. Remove pulp from the rind and mash. To cool, place the pan of mashed pumpkin in cold water. Stir to cool evenly. Pack into freezer containers, seal and freeze.

What’s the difference between onions, leeks, scallions and shallots?

Although they are all members of the allium family, they do have different characteristics that are interesting to note.

The onion is a common garden vegetable with an edible bulb. There are innumerable varieties of onions very much adapted to certain conditions. The warmer the climate in which it is grown, the milder the onion. Onions propagate by seed; among the most common onions are the button or pearl onion, common or seed onion, Egyptian or tree onion, potato onion, Spanish, globe or Bermuda onion.

The leek is a close but more delicately flavored cousin of the onion. This hardy variation survives cold winters yet also may be grown subtropically. The leek primarily is used in soups, stews and quiches.

The scallion also is called the spring or Welsh onion. The scallion and the green onion are one and the same. Scallions have green, hollow tops and show white for two or three inches above the roots.

At the base of the stalk you have a slight bulge, but not a bulb. The flavor is milder than the common onion, and both the white and green sections are eaten, cooked or raw. Scallions are picked when younger and have a slender, straight base while the green onion, kept in the ground longer, has that slight bulge at its base.

Shallots also are a member of the allium family with a mild, onion-like flavor. Bulbous in shape and generally larger than garlic, the bulb consists of several segments, easily separated. Shallots are considered more easily digestible than either onions or garlic and may be used in the same capacity. Shallots propagate by bulbets, not seeds, cast off from a mature plant.

Two other members of the allium family are chives and garlic. Chives are sometimes confused with the tops of scallions, but they’re a separate member of the allium family. Much thinner and shorter than green onion tops, they have a mild onion flavor and that’s best when raw.

Garlic is the strongest guy of the bunch. Easily the most pungent, potent and powerful in terms of flavor and aroma, this allium bulb can be used for everything from seasoning salads to repelling bugs in the garden. Garlic has several varieties and in fresh, dried or powdered form, is a staple in recipes of good cooks.